Introspective Knowledge and Displaced Perception :: science

Introspective Knowledge and Displaced PerceptionDretske remarks that there are two important differences between self-examining knowledge and other familys of displaced perception (p. 60). What are these differences? Are they enough to call into question his view of self-examining knowledge as displaced perception? The second chapter of Naturalizing the brainiac is in the main an attempt to provide an account of introspective knowledge consistent with the Representational Thesis. Dretske takes introspective knowledge to be a given and outlet by trying to explain how such knowledge is manageable without appealing to an inner sense, an idea that seems to conflict with the Thesiss commitment to externalism intimately the content of psychical states. To this end, he proposes that introspection is a species of displaced perception. However, he highlights two important differences between introspective knowledge and other forms of displaced perception that seem to apprise that int rospective knowledge cannot in any relevant sense be viewed as an instance of displaced perception. As a result, Dretske fails to explain how introspective knowledge is possible and therefore fails to provide a compelling alternative to the inner sense account of introspective knowledge. Introspective knowledge is knowledge the mind has of itself (p. 39). For example, knowing, when I comprehend a yellow box, that I am having a certain experience (namely an experience of a yellow box) is, for Dretske, an instance of introspective knowledge. This knowledge is not just about the boxs being yellow or indeed about the box at all, it is knowledge about myself, knowledge that I am having a certain experience (on Dretskes view, knowledge that I am representing a, perceived, box as yellow). Introspective knowledge seems to have some strange properties. Natsoulas defines one form of consciousnessreflective consciousnessas a privileged ability to be non-inferentially aware of (all or some of ) ones current mental occurrences. We seem to have this ability. In telling you what I believe I do not have to figure this out (as you might have to) from what I say or do. There is nothing from which I infer that A looks longer than B. It just does. (p. 39) Dretske take s the notion that humans have introspective knowledge as a given. His interest in the matter arises when one attempts to explain how we come by such knowledge and what gives us this first-person authority(p. 40) Dretske wants to retract one possible explanation, namely the idea that introspective knowledge is garnered by the mind perceiving its own workings.

Reducing Teen Pregnancy With Sex Education Essay -- argumentative, per

Adolescent pregnancy is a crisis that inadvertently affects all. This is not only a burden to the young woman and her family, exclusively also has a consequential impact on society. By reducing the number of adolescent pregnancies we could promote child well-being and decrease child impoverishment statistics (National information). Increasing the number of comprehensive sex education courses would help young people learn how to better protect themselves a viewst premature pregnancy and STDs, and would in tour curtail the number of teenage pregnancies.Among industrialized countries the United States has the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy. The rate of teen pregnancy in the U.S. is twice that of Great Britain and four measure that of Germany and France. According to Saul Hoffman, Ph.D. and publisher of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen gestation study, adolescent childbearing in 2011 alone cost U.S. taxpayers $10.1 billion, (Hoffman 2012.)Statistics show the dread number of female adolescents walking around with oversized stomachs. Three in ten girls in the United States get pregnant at least one time by age twenty (National Data). Less than one three of teen mothers obtain a high school diploma and only 1.5 percent suck a college degree. Adolescent mothers are at a greater risk for birthing complications such as pregnancy induced hypertension, poor weight gain throughout pregnancy, and pregnancy-induced hypertension (Hoffman 2012).Infants born to adolescent mothers have a greater risk for premature birth, low birth rate, increasing the possibility of infant death, genial retardation, and chronic respiratory problems. Children born to adolescent parents are higher at risk for abuse and neglect, and are less apt to acquire adequ... ...015. .Hoffman, Saul . amount The Public Costs of Teen Childbearing . The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy , 30 Oc t. 2012. Web. 21 Mar. 2015. Landry, David J. , Jacqueline E. Darroch, Susheela Singh, and Jenny Higgins. Factors Associates with Content of Sex Education in U.S. Public Secondary Schools. Perspecitves on Sexual Reproductive Health 35.6 (2007) 261-262. Print.National Data The National Campaign. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy , n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2015. .

Dances With Wolves Analysis Essay -- Movies Native Americans History P

Dances With Wolves AnalysisThe movie Dances With Wolves was produced in 1990 and directed by Kevin Costner who starred as the main character. Dances with Wolves tells us the story of a white man who gets acquainted with the Sioux, who learns to love and respect them as valuable people with a culture and who discovers how wrong white peoples gestate ideas about Native Americans are. A sense of adventure and drama is the feeling Dances with Wolves gives us. With this movie, Costner made his debut as a film director. Dances with Wolves scored a total of 7 Oscars for best directing, best script, cutting, music and sound effects. (Sanders, Simon D.) A common scene in a medical tent during the Civil War could describe the chess opening scene of the movie Two doctors are bending over a soldier, ready to amputate his badly injured leg. The doctors leave the tent for a crack up just before the amputation. Soldier Dunbar uses this moment to pull back on his boot and stumbles out of the ten t. He doesnt see a purpose in his behavior and wants rather death than a life with one leg. He gets on his horse and attempts suicide by riding across the enemy line. Surprisingly, the enemies are inefficient to shoot him, and his own solders are starring at him with disbelieve. They do respect him for his crazy, yet brave act. Dunbars people take advantage of the moment of distraction and violent storm the enemies line, making a victory. Dunbar receives outstanding medical treatment and gets to keep his leg. As a decorated veteran, he chooses to take a post in the westward because he wants to see the frontier before its gone. Dunbar is fascinated about the wide, open spaced no mans land The country is everything I dreamed it would be. ... ...it the Indian Removal was conjectural to be voluntary, removal became mandatory whenever the federal government felt it necessary. The memory of these brutal forced marches of Native Americans, sometimes in the dead winter, remained smar t as a whip for years to come in the minds of those who survived. Paherman indicates that the Plains Indians Wars, which raged during the last half of the 19th century, ended with the slaughter of Sioux men, women, and children, as well as the soldiers of the U.S. 7th Calvary, at Wounded Knee, southernmost Dakota, on December 29, 1890. Works CitedCostner, Kevin, dir. Dances with Wolves. Per. Kevin Costner, Mary McDonnell, Graham Greene, and Rodney A.Grant. 1990. Videocassette. Orion, 1991. Paherman. Indian Removal. n.d. 17 August 2001. Sanders, Simon D. We are fans of Kevin Costner. Biography. February 2001. 17 August 2001.

India, Nigeria and Internal Medicine :: Medicine College Admissions Essays

India, Nigeria and Internal Medicine My desire to become a physician dates way back into my puerility. My parents migrated to Nigeria in the late 1960s when my father, an academician, decided to help educate children there. This was a country, which then had just gained independence. A persons goals are set by the spot models he or she seeks to emulate. My childhood role model is Dr. Raj a physician. I learned from Dr. Raj, that real success and satisfaction is achieved by putting ones beliefs and thoughts into action. Dr. Raj provided quality care to the poor, especially children, alongside his richer clients. This odd a lasting impression on me. Later on, when I realized that lots of people actually lacked basic medical care, I always treasured to reach out and help settle a difference in the lives of others. Medicine, with its emphasis on service would therefore be the most satisfying life history for me. My interest in internal medicine developed during my training at me dical school in Nigeria. Internal medicine offers a wide renewal of cases, which makes it as diverse as it is exciting, requiring a problem solving attitude and constant vigilance. Having graduated from a reputed medical school in a growing country, I had the opportunity to get hands-on experience in patient care, right from start. In fact, my medical school had a unique final division program where the focus was essentially on preventive medicine and wellness education. During this community based health program, we were required to monitor and provide complete health care to people in neighboring villages. While working on our year book during the same year, we were able to raise money from the proceeds of the sale and various other activities (conducting symposium, charity fair, etc.) so as to provide free dug supplies to the underprivileged. All this made me realize the tangible difference one could make in the lives of others. Upon graduation, I spent two and a half years , working in private hospital settings in India and Nigeria. This has made me a more experience and mature physician but has left me yearning for more knowledge. For the past three years I eat been in the United States and during this time, I have successfully qualified the ECFMG certification examination, USMLE steps I, II & III. I have also worked as a research associate at Stanford University on role of HIF-1( in retinopathy of maturity.

Edgar Allan Poe :: Essays Papers

Edgar Allan Poe2 Edgar Allan Poes life had a profound effect on the technical style of his writing. Poe spent most of his life raised by foster parents who did not contribute to or encourage his writing. His first work was published in 1827, at the young age of 18, but his story in 1833, MS set up in a Bottle, marked the beginning of his writing career. Poe uses darkness and death in many of his stories. In his poems he was able to flesh out moods of mystery really well. Edgar Allan Poe was a unique writer who was not afraid to do something different from all the authors, while his adulthood was short and depressing.Born to change of location actors David and Elizabeth Poe on January 19, 1809, Edgar Poe was the mall child of three children. His father, David Poe, was from a Baltimore family. He was an actor by profession and a heavy drinker. Edgar was never very close with his one-time(a) brother, William Henry Leonard Poe, because he had been left with his pa ternal grandparents around September 1807 for what began as an undetermined amount of time. In July of 1810 David Poe deserted his family and died shortly after. His death was most perchance alcohol elated. Elizabeth was serene pregnant with their youngest child, Rosalie, who was born that December, at this time. Approximately a year after her daughter was born, in December of 1811, Elizabeth Poe died of tuberculosis. As a top of her death, William Henry Leonard stayed with his grandparents, Edgar was take by a couple of wealthy merchants from Richmond, Virginia, deception and Fanny Allan, who offered him a better education than his grandparents could, while Rosalie was adopted Mr. and Mrs. William Mackenzie. In 1815, John Allan moved the family to England to adjudicate to make Allan and Ellis prosper. While there, Edgar went to private schools where his creative writings were discouraged. In 1820 the Allans returned to Virginia as a result of the collapse of Jo hns business venture. before long after the Allans return to the United States, Edgar began to support himself as he moved to Boston and worked in a merchandise house.Edgar Allan Poe Essays coverEdgar Allan Poe2 Edgar Allan Poes life had a profound effect on the technical style of his writing. Poe spent most of his life raised by foster parents who did not contribute to or encourage his writing. His first work was published in 1827, at the young age of 18, but his story in 1833, MS Found in a Bottle, marked the beginning of his writing career. Poe uses darkness and death in many of his stories. In his poems he was able to illustrate moods of mystery very well. Edgar Allan Poe was a unique writer who was not afraid to do something different from all the authors, while his adulthood was short and depressing.Born to traveling actors David and Elizabeth Poe on January 19, 1809, Edgar Poe was the middle child of three children. His father, David Poe, was from a Bal timore family. He was an actor by profession and a heavy drinker. Edgar was never very close with his older brother, William Henry Leonard Poe, because he had been left with his paternal grandparents around September 1807 for what began as an undetermined amount of time. In July of 1810 David Poe deserted his family and died shortly after. His death was most possibly alcohol elated. Elizabeth was still pregnant with their youngest child, Rosalie, who was born that December, at this time. Approximately a year after her daughter was born, in December of 1811, Elizabeth Poe died of tuberculosis. As a result of her death, William Henry Leonard stayed with his grandparents, Edgar was adopted by a couple of wealthy merchants from Richmond, Virginia, John and Fanny Allan, who offered him a better education than his grandparents could, while Rosalie was adopted Mr. and Mrs. William Mackenzie. In 1815, John Allan moved the family to England to try to make Allan and Ellis prosper. Wh ile there, Edgar went to private schools where his creative writings were discouraged. In 1820 the Allans returned to Virginia as a result of the collapse of Johns business venture. Shortly after the Allans return to the United States, Edgar began to support himself as he moved to Boston and worked in a merchandise house.

Edgar Allan Poe :: Essays Papers

Edgar Allan Poe2 Edgar Allan Poes life had a profound effect on the technical fashion of his writing. Poe spent about of his life raised by foster parents who did not contribute to or encour maturate his writing. His first work was published in 1827, at the young age of 18, but his story in 1833, MS Found in a Bottle, marked the beginning of his writing career. Poe uses darkness and death in many of his stories. In his poems he was able to illustrate moods of mystery very well. Edgar Allan Poe was a unique writer who was not afraid to do something different from entirely the authors, age his maturity was short and depressing.Born to traveling actors David and Elizabeth Poe on January 19, 1809, Edgar Poe was the middle child of three children. His father, David Poe, was from a Baltimore family. He was an actor by profession and a heavy drinker. Edgar was neer very close with his older brother, William Henry Leonard Poe, because he had been left with his paterna l grandparents around September 1807 for what began as an undetermined amount of time. In July of 1810 David Poe deserted his family and died suddenly after. His death was most possibly alcohol elated. Elizabeth was still pregnant with their youngest child, Rosalie, who was born that celestial latitude, at this time. Approximately a year after her young woman was born, in December of 1811, Elizabeth Poe died of tuberculosis. As a top of her death, William Henry Leonard stayed with his grandparents, Edgar was adopted by a couple of wealthy merchants from Richmond, Virginia, John and Fanny Allan, who offered him a amend education than his grandparents could, while Rosalie was adopted Mr. and Mrs. William Mackenzie. In 1815, John Allan go the family to England to try to make Allan and Ellis prosper. While there, Edgar went to private schools where his creative writings were discouraged. In 1820 the Allans returned to Virginia as a result of the collapse of Johns bus iness venture. Shortly after the Allans return to the United States, Edgar began to support himself as he moved to Boston and worked in a merchandise house.Edgar Allan Poe Essays PapersEdgar Allan Poe2 Edgar Allan Poes life had a profound effect on the technical style of his writing. Poe spent most of his life raised by foster parents who did not contribute to or encourage his writing. His first work was published in 1827, at the young age of 18, but his story in 1833, MS Found in a Bottle, marked the beginning of his writing career. Poe uses darkness and death in many of his stories. In his poems he was able to illustrate moods of mystery very well. Edgar Allan Poe was a unique writer who was not afraid to do something different from all the authors, while his adulthood was short and depressing.Born to traveling actors David and Elizabeth Poe on January 19, 1809, Edgar Poe was the middle child of three children. His father, David Poe, was from a Baltimore famil y. He was an actor by profession and a heavy drinker. Edgar was never very close with his older brother, William Henry Leonard Poe, because he had been left with his paternal grandparents around September 1807 for what began as an undetermined amount of time. In July of 1810 David Poe deserted his family and died shortly after. His death was most possibly alcohol elated. Elizabeth was still pregnant with their youngest child, Rosalie, who was born that December, at this time. Approximately a year after her daughter was born, in December of 1811, Elizabeth Poe died of tuberculosis. As a result of her death, William Henry Leonard stayed with his grandparents, Edgar was adopted by a couple of wealthy merchants from Richmond, Virginia, John and Fanny Allan, who offered him a better education than his grandparents could, while Rosalie was adopted Mr. and Mrs. William Mackenzie. In 1815, John Allan moved the family to England to try to make Allan and Ellis prosper. While there, E dgar went to private schools where his creative writings were discouraged. In 1820 the Allans returned to Virginia as a result of the collapse of Johns business venture. Shortly after the Allans return to the United States, Edgar began to support himself as he moved to Boston and worked in a merchandise house.

Counselling Interview skills Essay

I accommodate that this assessment is my own work, based on my own personal research/study . I also decl be that this assessment, nor parts of it, has not been previously submitted for any other unit/module or course, and that I have not copied in part or total or otherwise plagiarised the work of another student and/or persons. I have read the ACAP Student Plagiarism and Academic Misconduct insurance and understand its implications.I also declargon, if this is a practical skills assessment, that a Client/Interviewee Consent Form has been read and signed by both parties, and where applicable paternal consent has been obtained.1. in brief rationalize how you would go about gathering information to assess Tims catamenia developmental and mental health status.I would go about gathering information about Tims developmental and mental health status by using active listening skills. I would be paying attention to Tims body language and taking note of such things, as his difficulty in maintaining eye pinch. I would be postulation Tim open questions to help him talk in more detail about his mental health issues, an example of an open question I would ask is stomach you tell me more about that?, and could you tell me about the time you overdosed on do drugss?, so that I skunk have a deeper understanding of the break points regarding Tims mental health.I would also be inquire Tim some closed questions to obtain specific information regarding Tims current mental state, an example of this is are you still on medication for depression?, and are you still feeling depressed?, and depending on whether or not Tims overdose was an try suicide, I could also ask, have you had any thoughts about taking your life?, so that I k forthwith his current mental state. I would be paraphrasing during our session so that Tim knows that I understand what he is saying and how he is feeling. I would be taking notes in this session so that I can refer to key points. I would summaris e what Tims key issues are, so that he has a chance to add any further information that may have been missed, and that may be important.2. Identify and briefly describe two of Tims mental and/ or developmental health issues.Two of Tims developmental and mental health issues are, his past and or current state of depression and the fact that Tim may have stressed suicide. Although Tim spent six months in hospital as an in-patient and has now been substructure for three months, he may still be struggling with depression and dangerous ideation, if his drug overdose was an attempted suicide. Tim is experiencing moodiness and unlawful sleep patterns, as well as a lack of focalize and motivation, he also has trouble maintaining eye contact. These symptoms may be the result of his depression or suicidal ideation, or they could be a sign of a developmental problem brought about by Tims drug overdose. As Tim was given drugs for his depression, his symptoms could also be the result of si de effects from the drugs he has been taking.3. If you do not have the capability or authority to assess Tims current mental or developmental health status, briefly explain how you would consult the appropriate person.If I did not have the capability or authority to assess Tims current mental or developmental health status, I could do two things. I could consult with my supervisor. I would ask Tim for his permission to discuss his concerns with my supervisor to apply advice from someone who has more experience than I do, so that his current mental health is assessed correctly. I could also consider referring Tim onto another health care schoolmaster such as a psychologist or psychiatrist. Another option would be to ask Tim for permission to contact Tims previous psychiatrist and request from them, every a letter of referral or Tims lymph node records, pertaining to Tims current mental health status.4. Describe what factors you would take into account that may have force on the a ppearance and behaviour of Tim in relation to counselling services to be delivered.The factors I would be taking into account regarding the appearance and behaviour of Tim in relation to counselling services to be delivered would be, the fact that Tim has suffered from depression in the past and may still be currently experiencing depression. Tim may have attempted suicide by overdosing on drugs or his drug overdose could have been accidental. Tims confidence has been shattered. This could explain why he has trouble maintaining eye contact or it could be the result of developmental delay due to Tims drug overdose. Or he could be experiencing side effects from his medication.5. briefly explain how you would clarify whether the counselling you can offer is suitable for Tim.I would have to evaluate my own level of experience and the area of counselling I am currently working in. Tims wishs are the most important factor to consider. Tim has been hospitalised in the past and has catch n a psychiatrist. While Tim was in hospital he was assigned milieu therapy, given drugs and also assigned to group therapy. I would be taking all ofthese things into account when evaluating whether to refer Tim. I think I would like to work with Tim, as he has already had the above mentioned treatments and found them to be unhelpful. I think Tim may benefit from counselling that offers a client centred approach. I would explain to Tim how the client centred approach to counselling works, so that Tim can decide if this type of counselling approach would be something he feels comfortable pursuing.6. Briefly describe how you would recognise and refer potentially serious issues for Tim in line with organisation requirements.I would be able to recognise and refer serious issues for Tim by familiarising myself with my organisations protocols, their referral procedures and referral lists. The type of organisation I worked for, and the type of counselling that is offered, would be a factor when deciding if Tim should be referred on to another organisation or professional. Things to consider would be Tims age, gender, the nature/and or seriousness of Tims issues. If Tim did intend to take his own life and still has suicidal thoughts he would need to be referred to a mental health facility or possibly referred back to the hospital that was treating Tim three months ago. If Tim was to be referred on, I would organise this as primordial as possible, so as not to make it harder on Tim to transfer to someone else.7. Briefly describe the skills you would use with Tim to help clarify his problems and develop a counselling relationship.When meeting Tim for the first time, I would introduce myself, I would be open, friendly and informal. I would be trying to put Tim at ease so that he feels welcome and safe. I would have noticed that Tim has trouble maintaining eye contact, so I would be very casual in the first a couple of(prenominal) minutes, allowing Tim to get familiar wi th his surroundings. After all the formalities have been explained to Tim and he has accepted them and decided to stay, I would say what is it you would like to talk to me about today? I would then tune in to Tim and listen with interest. I would be using minimal responses, paraphrasing, and summarising skills to let Tim know that I am understanding him and compassionate about what he is saying.The first few sessions with Tim would be all about building rapport, and developing ourrelationship. After this has been established, I would use zooming out skills to help Tim see that he is not alone and that he has people in his life that care about him, and are able to offer their support. I would be asking open and closed questions to determine Tims current mental state, an example would be can you tell me a little more about the drug overdose so that I could clarify if it was accidental or an attempted suicide. I would work with Tim on developing a list of what he feels are the key iss ues he would like to work on. This will help Tim clarify for the both of us what the key issues are.8. Briefly describe how you would consult with Tims parents or significant others to gather information, if the need presented itself.If the need presented itself I would introduce the idea of inviting Tims parents along to one of our counselling sessions to Tim. I would explain to Tim that sometimes it can be helpful to ask those who are close to you to come along to counselling with you, so that we can have more insight into how the relationships at home have been affected by all that has happened, and so that we have another point of view of the situation. I would only go ahead with this if Tim consented.9. Briefly describe what records and notes you would record for this client.Notes on next page.Clients Name TimClients Age 25Date of seance 20/11/14Session 1Session Duration 60 minutesOthers Present NilStatus of Session KeptLocation OfficeInformation given by clientTim is a 25 yr . old male. In final yr. of uni hospitalised for drug overdose during a bout of depression. In-patient at hospital 6 mths. Assigned milieu therapy, given drugs for depression, precept psychiatrist occasionally, alsoassigned group therapy, which proved to be aimless. Been home for 3 mths. Living with parents, says they worry about his moodiness and irregular sleep patterns. Finds it hard to focus and lacks motivation to finish uni, but wants to one day. Feels confidence was shattered. Has trouble maintaining eye contact. Looking for part time work, avoids full-time work for fears of being asked about his past. Feels he has a terrible secret he has to keep form everyone.Summary of clients issuesOverdosed on drugs, during a bout of depression. May/may not have been attempt at suicide. Hospitalised and kept as an in-patient for 6 mths. Had milieu therapy and group therapy. Saw psychiatrist occasionally, prescribed drugs. Tims confidence is shattered. Parents worry about Tims moodiness/ irregular sleep patterns. No motivation/focus to finish uni. Avoids full time work, fears talking about past (embarrassed). Feels he has to keep his past secret from everyone (ashamed). Notes of proponent I feel that Tim may benefit from a client centred approach to his counselling. The key issues for this client are outlined above.

Not Satisfied with School Canteen Food

TASK 4 You are not most satisfied with the food provided at your trail canteen and would like to convince your principal or the inculcate management to change the vendors or the food sold at the canteen. Imagine that you hit been granted an interview with the principal. Prepare a speech to pronounce your opinions to the principal. SPEECH Introduction Good morning principal. Today, I would like to raise an issue on the food in our schools canteen. I hire been in this school for 6 years and the food was delicious, however, recently, I have noticed some flaws in our schools food system.Prices Too graduate(prenominal) Firstly, I would like to bring up the issue of the food being too expensive for many children to afford. When I accompany my mother to shopping trips out ramp, and have noted that the food outside are much cheaper than the food sold in Nan Hua although they were the same. As supermarkets like Sheng Siong are big companies and our school is only a small school, it is e xpected that the prices in the markets should be cheaper than that in our school. However, I find the prices in our school really very outrageous.For example, once when I was in a supermarket, I saw a particular snack that our school sold. The price was S$0. 80 for 5 packets, however in our school the price was S$0. 40 for each packet. Another example is the cheese sausage sold at the Chinese Cuisine store. The price was S$1. 00 for hotshot sausage while outside, it was sold as 5 in a packet for S$2. 50. The prices are outrageous in our school S$1. 00 is the essential Ones and Twos pocket money for a day and they could not possibly spent all their money on one sausage Bad Attitude To ChildrenThe succor issue is our school vendors attitude. Being in Primary Six, I seldom en totalered someone scolding me or trying to cheat me of my money. However, I do oft see lower primary pupils, especially the Primary Ones and Twos, being have to bear the vendors temper when he or she was feeli ng not particularly well. Once, I was queuing at the snack store when I saw a Primary One girl. She handed up 50 cents for something that costs 70 cents. Out of the corner of my eye, I saw the store owner reply that the snack costs 70 cents and pointed to a sign behind the snacks that labelled S$0. 0. Read the vendor had said impatiently, eyes bulging. The girl took back her money and backed away fearfully. I think that the vendor should not execute like that. Most likely, the girl did not learn to recognize money yet and could not count the amount. The vendor should have patiently told her that what she handed was 50 cents and not 70 cents and help her find the money. Slow Serving The third problem is one that pupils of all levels come across, that the vendors are too slow at serving. Once, my friends and I were dismissed late.We tried to grab a chicken chop from the second stall. I did not want to eat anything else. We queued for 15 minutes in front we were served, and were alm ost late for class. I noted that the vendors, especially the new store subdue 2, Asian Favorites, was very casual in their movements. The second store alleged(prenominal) aunties often stopped what they were doing to talk to each other, and their movements were as slow as you can get. Conclusion Perhaps the school could install Satisfactory Testers at the side of each stall.These machines comprise of two buttons, one smiley face and one sad face. If the number of smiley faces for the stall each month is above 50% of the total number replies, the stall could remain. If the stall had less than 50% smiley faces for two consecutive months, the school could change the vendor. This way, we would have included the whole schools judgement. It is important that we count in everyones judgement. Having a good canteen gives us a more conducive learning environment and helps pupils to concentrate on their studies better.

I felt a Funeral in my Brain Essay

Dickinson uses the metaphor of a funeral in her metrical composition I felt a Funeral in my Brain to describe abstract emotions think to stressful situations that could destroy or take away allthing that an individual values in life. The verse form is quite permissive in the sense that it allows multiple readings where the lector may ascribe the emotions described in the poem to various situations that are difficult to cope with in life. Of course, to add dimension to the poem, Dickinson uses numerous poetic devices to kindle the experience of reading this particular piece.The piece features alliterations such as in the line, I felt a Funeral, in my Brain,. (1) Here there is a repetition of the consonant f intemperate in the words felt and funeral. Again, the same poetic device is seen in the line, And I, and Silence, some strange Race. (15) where the consonant s sound is repeated in the words, some and strange. Another one of these lines featuring an alliteration is the line , And I dropped down, and down . 18) While alliteration has no contextual duty in these lines, the device serves to give the poem some mien of regular rhythm so that reading the poem is not just an intellectual experience, save also an experience that is enhanced by sound. The poem is given an interesting beat to it because of these alliterations. Another device intended to give the poem a more than rhythmic quality is the assonance which is found in the line, Kept treading treading till it seemed(3) where the vowel sound ea is repeated in the word treading and the vowel sound I is repeated in the words treading,. Til, and it.In the same manner, the line, And I, and Silence, some strange Race (15) also demonstrates the use of assonance in the repetition of the vowel sound I in the words I and silence and the repetition of the sound ae in the words strange and race. There are also metaphors in this very brief yet multi-dimensional poem. For instance, to demonstrate the frailty of reason, Dickinson writes, And then a Plank in Reason, broke. (17) Here one sees how reason is likened to a dining t qualified which breaks a very clever way of illustrating the common human reactionary idiom which is breaking under pressure.Another metaphor in the poem is With those same Boots of Lead, again (11) which describes the heavy steps that a bothered or disturbed person makes. In effect, this particular line is an effective metaphor that illustrates the footfalls of a troubled or stressed person perhaps, an experience that is familiar to most people as not having the energy to walk when stressed or trouble, then heavy feet. Aside from metaphors, the very brief poem also ma scolderes to throw in a few similes, such as the line, A Service, like a Drum (6), which likens the representatives of the people in the funeral service to the incessant beating of a drum.So, the sound referred to in this line is an annoying or repetitive sound that seems to nag at the voices mind. Then, there is the line, As all the Heavens were a Bell / And Being, but an Ear (13-14) where the voice tries to illustrate how noisy or boisterous prayers are in the context of a person who is currently troubled or is dealing with problems that would seem insurmountable. These lines express the desperation of the state of the voice in that it describes how prayers are often empty and without significance or can do nothing to alleviate ones sorry state.It is amazing how Dickinson is able to pack so many poetic devices into one very short poem. This demonstrates the brilliance of this poet in the art of poetry because it simply shows how expertly crafted and well-thought of the poem truly is. There is also a hyperbole in the poem in the lines, And I dropped down, and down / And hit a World, at every plunge (18-19) describing the solemness or the seriousness of the state of the voice hereto expressed as the feeling of falling down and hitting a world at every plunge.In effect, wha t the poet is saying here is that each disappointment or stressful situation puts the voice in a situation where he/she has to face the consequences presented or put before him/her by a confusing, unyielding, and indifferent society, here referred to as a world. Not to be left out in the poem is the personification which is found in the line, And I, and Silence, some strange Race (15) While personification is not immediately evident or apparent in this line, close at hand(predicate) analysis of it would reveal, that in fact, personification is used to represent an abstract concept.When the voice puts silence in equal footage with himself/herself by treating silence as some sort of companion, personification is achieved. So, in this line, the voice of the poem claims that he/she and silence are both from a strange race what this does is it gives the reader the illusion that apart from the I who is a tangible concrete element of the poem, silence which is an abstract concept also bec omes a concrete element as it is personified by treating it as a companion of the I. This poem by Emily Dickinson simply demonstrates how craftsmanship is often very important in the creation of a poem.The intentions of a poet are more often than not to convey emotion and to embody such emotion in words and the effective use of poetic devices achieves this particular poetic intention or objective. When a poem is able to effectively use poetic devices such reflects on the expertise and genius of the poet because while only some poetic devices can be found in some other singular poems, this poem packs in a large number, if not all poetic devices in the span of xx lines spread throughout five stanzas. Such a feat is amazing in itself.

Environmental Economics & climatic change Essay

Many approaches to green house runs argon currently being examined in the United States. In fact members of the 110th Congress (2007-2008) are actu eachy making legislations pertaining to global changes faster than has even been experienced before having made over 235 bills, resolutions and changes by July, 2008. One such proposal is the cap-and-trade system (Paltsev et al. 4). The cap-and-trade is a piece of legislation meant to identify the greenhouse-gas-emitting bodies it incorporates.It refers to those organizations which introduces caps on the emissions they are responsible for and totallyows trading in the emission allowances which arise in that locationin (Obama & Biden, bare-ass pushing for America). They basically stipulate a set of accounting periods allocating allowed emissions for all the periods (Paltsev et al. 4). Cap-and-Trade Legislation SO2 Program The permit trading programs erect pollution permits to organizations which reduce their pollution discharge lowe r than the target benchmarks. They are then allowed to either trade them or keep them for use in emerging (Ludwig 1). Following the Clean Air Amendments of 1990 the U.S put in place the Acid Rain Program to gain a step-down in reciprocal ohm dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx), the main contributors of acid rain (Ludwig 1). The second program was the Hot-spots and acid rain program which basically involves restrictive tiering embracing more than single regulatory regime at one specific era with the intention of exercising some control on the way permits are made use of (Obama & Biden, New zip fastener for America). The goal of the acid rain program is to reduce SO2 emissions by 50% a task meant to be accomplished through two stages mandating all organizations to reduce their SO2 emissions (Ludwig 3).The Opt-in program established by the Congress according to section 410 of the Clean Air Act Amendments of the year 1990 was designed with the intention of drawing the SO2 sour ces with reduce marginal termss of compliance (Ludwig 3). It is important to note however that the permit trading programs are not effectively contributing towards reducing increased emissions. hence the acid rain program of the United States has had less and unlikely effects on pollution hot-spots (Ludwig 10). This is quite unfortunate given the main energy disputes veneering the U.S, which are foreign oil dependence and global changes in the climate (Obama & Biden, New Energy for America). The safeguard the acid rain program makes use of is one of the reasons permit net flows have such a low effect on reducing emission. Alternative Method of Pollution Control It is worth appreciating that snow trading at the markets was a positive step be it at the global, European or national fronts (NCEP, Ending the Energy Stalemate A nonpartizan Strategy to Meet Americas Energy Challenges). It was in deed a challenge not only to the government but also to the privy sector (Obama & Biden , New Energy for America).If the war against carbon emissions is to be worn, a global regulatory framework would be needed (Watson et al 1). This would call for British Government and the World Bank to embrace the same views. This means that the cap-and-trade legislations can no longer offer the best solution to the problem. What is needed is a antithetic approach, an alternate way of reducing carbon emissions. In light of the climatic changes being experienced, carbon emissions should be reduced by all chances (Obama & Biden, New Energy for America).This calls for a new trading strategy an approach which is more inclusive likely to involve all ventures emitting carbon such as aircrafts and ships (Watson et al 1). In the private sector this would call for a wider long-term market approach, voluntary in nature working to achieve public and private interests. The Kyoto Protocol should be strengthened coupled with better implementation of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) (Watso n et al 1). Indications of progress are beginning to be seen with incentives for reducing emissions, development of alternative technologies as advantageously as investments attraction (Watson et al 2).There is also the need for better liaison with the UN system more so in service of process poor countries with their emission problems (NCEP, Ending the Energy Stalemate A Bipartisan Strategy to Meet Americas Energy Challenges). This therefore means that carbon taxation is definitely not an alternative solution the emission problems. There is need to invest in fuel-efficient machinery, support domestic energy supply, as well as diversifying the nations sources of energy (Obama & Biden, New Energy for America). Organizations also need to commit themselves to the course of lowering their energy consumption (Watson et al 2).The Legislation I would restrain As an undergraduate in ApEc 3611, I would support the second alternative because it more inclusive, realistic and possibly a bette r solution since it involves many stakeholders (Watson et al 2). What I imply here is that a new alternative to Americas and indeed the worlds energy problem is an idea whose time has come (NCEP, Ending the Energy Stalemate A Bipartisan Strategy to Meet Americas Energy Challenges). Energy is a real challenge facing the world and for America, there is even greater need to address the issue because of foreign oil dependence (Obama & Biden, New Energy for America).Therefore I support the new alternatives to reducing carbon emissions. The private sector needs to embrace a wider long-term market perspective but within the edge of both the public and the private interests (Watson et al 2). This new perspective calls for more research into the areas of innovative technology as well as new investments. therefore one of the mid-to-long term proposals to the energy crisis in America is to make investments towards the secure energy future of the nation alongside creating more than 5 million j obs all with the intention of lowering foreign oil dependence (Obama & Biden, New Energy for America).Such efforts leave behind greatly reduce carbon emissions besides contributing towards the reduction of the countrys dependence on foreign oil (NCEP, Ending the Energy Stalemate A Bipartisan Strategy to Meet Americas Energy Challenges). There is need to strengthen the Kyoto Protocol and the implementation of more stringent governance and accountability systems (Watson et al 2). The Emissions Trading System (ETS) needs to be reviewed (Hertel, Global Trade outline role model and Applications). This is because for it to be successful, it needs to put caps on emissions.This testament create both markets and prices for carbon emission permits (Watson et al 2). I therefore fully support these new alternatives since they offer a more proactive approach to the nations energy problems. Cost Benefit Analysis The lake in question is private property if the home possessor has the property rights to it. This would mean that as a private good it can only be used by another party if it is paid for. It is the lake owner who would decide whether or not another party uses the lake.For this to happen, the total benefits accrued from the use of the lake will have to supersede the costs of using the same lake thus a Pareto improvement (Oka 18). The lake owner will have to carry out a cost-benefit analysis before he can allow fishing in the lake. This is an evaluation tool to determine if the use of scarce resources will generate efficiency (Fuguitt & Wilcox 2). skill is in relation to the lake will be the benefit of peace and quiet at $2,000 per season. It means the benefit of allowing Walleye Wally to use the lake will be $ 2,000.With $ 2,500 he can meet the $2,000 and secure the fishing deal meaning that there will be fishing in the lake. However, with only $1,200 per season, he cannot meet the cost of foregoing the peace and quiet thus there will be no fishing. Assume Wa lleye Wally had the property rights and the benefits of peace and quiet to the home owner remain unchanged at $2,000. With $2,500 there would be fishing in the lake. The lake owner cannot however pay Walleye Wally not to fish since the cost of pay Walleye would supersede the benefit of peace and quiet, hence there will be no Pareto improvement.If Walleye got $1,200 per season there cannot be fishing in the lake since the benefit of the fishing will be less than the cost and hence no Pareto improvement. This transaction cannot be termed as efficient since one party will suffer loss in the transaction. The principle that by which the concept of efficiency is applied is here is the cost benefit analysis (Oka 19). Conclusion There are factors that would hinder the cost-benefit analysis. For public goods, it is tricky to measure the efficiency concept and the Pareto improvement concept is lost.The consideration of potential value that would be attached to sustainability would make it d ifficult to make an accurate cost-benefit analysis (Oka 26). In conclusion, cost-benefit is an economic tool used for gauging the efficiency of a transaction in the market economy (Oka 17). With regards to CO2 emissions, there is need for a new direction which will require a more centralized regime a continual and joint effort surrounded by the government, businesses and the people (Obama & Biden, New Energy for America).Works CitedFuguitt, Diana and Wilcox, Shanton. Cost-Benefit Analysis for Public Sector Decision Makers. Accessed 17 February 2009 from http//www. csus. edu/indiv/w/wassmerr/CBAOverview. pdf Hertel, Thomas W. Global Trade Analysis Modeling and Applications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA 1997. Ludwig, Lindsay C. The U. S Acid Rain Program and Its Effect on SO2 Emission Levels. Issues in Political Economy 13 (2004)1-11. Accessed on 17 February 2009 from http//org. elon. edu/ipe/Ludwig_Edited. pdf. NCEP National care on Energy. Ending the Energy Stalemate A Bipartisan Strategy to Meet Americas Energy Challenges, Washington DC 2004Obama, Barack and Biden, Joe. New Energy for America, 2008. Accessed 17 February 2009 from http//www. barackobama. com/pdf/factsheet_energy_speech_080308. pdf Oka, Tosihiro. Effectiveness and Limitations of Cost-benefit Analysis in Policy Appraisal Government Auditing Review 10 (2003) 18- 26 Paltsev, Sergy, et al. Assessment of U. S Cap-and-Trade Proposals. Report number 146, 2007. Accessed 17 February 2009 1-71 from http//web. mit. edu/globalchange/www/MITJPSPGC_Rpt146. pdf. Watson, Bob. , Grubb, Michael. , and Stuart, Marc. Dinne

UNC Conboy

An International trade supposition, grounded In the hammer of Adam metalworker and David Richard, that focuses on the Importance of comparative advantage get downed through differences in natural or acquired economic advantages is referred to as a. Classical trade theory b. Factor counterweight theory c. Product life cycle theory d. Competitive advantage theory 2. Paul Germans realist perspective embraces which of the following conclusions a. Countries compete with each other a great deal like companies compete with each other ND must therefore engage in similar strategic behaviors b.Government intervention in the market Is ofttimes essential due to imperfections that allow for the formation of monopolies and oligopolies In lucrative Industry segments c. Economic growth In one country must come at the expense of economic growth in another, therefore countries must protect municipal Industry in many instances d. Market imperfections due in circumstance exist, but the prospects f or improving the situation through strategic trade policy is overstated by those in favor of government intervention 3.Cluster theory suggests that companies obtain resources as a result of geographic proximity to other related and supportive Industries primarily as a result of a. Information spillovers b. Lower merchant marine costs c. Region specific subsidies d. Access to a common labor pools 4. A theory of Internationalization, observed In the wine Industry In the appoint readings, that focuses on the development of relationships between producers, suppliers, competitors, and government to obtain information and resources necessary to complete globally is referred to as a. Pascal instance b. Network model .Innovation model d. Leverage model 5. Michael Porters Diamond Model focuses on all of the following, EXCEPT a. The Importance of International argument to drive technological Innovation b. C. Sophisticated house servant demand that encourages new product and service develo pment d. The presence of related and supportive industries in the domestic market 6. Mercantilism refers to policies and practices designed to a. Encourage supranational trade through the creation of innovative products and services b. Remove regulatory and economic barriers to international competition c.Create a trade surplus by subsidizing domestic firms and limiting foreign competition d. Discourage all international trade to promote national independence and self- sufficiency 7. An international trade theory, grounded in the work of Wassail Limonite, that focuses on trade cycles emerging from production initially by a parent company, then by a foreign subsidiary, and ultimately by foreign competitors is referred to as a. Classical trade theory d. Competitive advantage theory 8. Advocates of Porters Diamond Model believe governments should support mommies industries by engaging in which of the following activities a.Subordination of industries of national importance to improve their competitive position b. Imposition of barriers to prevent foreign competitors from entering domestic markets c. Provision of supportive public floor and education needed to support emerging industries d. The government should play no role in supporting or developing domestic industries 9. Cluster theory focuses primarily on the creation of competitive advantage through a. Ongoing investment in research and development to encourage innovation b.Intense price competition designed to bring down the cost of products and services c. Transportation costs associated with bringing goods and services to market d. Interactions between geographic concentrations of interconnected companies 10. The case determine of wine clusters indicates that firms in this industry located in both Brazil and France have effectively leveraged which of the following cluster resources to facilitate the internationalization process a. inexpensive input costs b. Regional reputation and culture c. Manufactu ring expertise d. Labor spillovers

Racial Profiling Essay

Racial pen is one of the most accurate problems going on in modern society. Racial write is caused when there are arrests, frisks, or others based simply by the race of the suspect instead of any suspicion of their behavior. Quite a few police officers and people in force play feel that racial profiling is a smart choice and continue to do so. Having safety and knowing police officers are arresting criminals is a smashing thing. However, police officers are only tar sucking people with dark skin the most. Dan White argues that since wispys and Hispanics are the two top races shown in arrest statistics and targeting them is a smart art move. Whites assertion that racial profiling is a smart thing to do is unacceptable because some Hispanics and Blacks are being frisked and arrested when they are innocent people, they get judged by their skin color, and police have no right to harbour a better watch on these two races than any other race.Racial profiling is wrong because Hispan ics and Blacks are getting frisked and arrested when some are innocent and didnt do anything wrong. According to Ayres, They were 42.3% less likely to be found with a implement after they were frisked (1). African Americans who have been frisked are less likely to have a weapon. Police officers are doing a poor job by only targeting Blacks because of their skin color. Therefore, police officers are proving that they only frisking innocent people because they have darker skin. Police officers are pulling over Hispanics and Blacks because they are judging them by their skin color. Bob Herbert stated, No people of color are safe from this treatment anywhere, regardless of their obedience to the law, their age, they type of care they drive, or their situation in life (2). People who are dark skinned have no way out of suspicion to police officers no matter if they look wealthy, young, or old.Police would atomically think a Black or Hispanic person will intend to commit a crime instead of a egg whitened person. Its a shame how this goes on because its non right that they have to be judged to be the bad person because they are darker. Racial profiling is violating human rights. Everyone has their basic rights and need to be treated equal, but officers who are racist dont let that happen. John Kifner mentioned, It is so commonplace for Black men to be pulled over in their vehicles that this practice has acquired its own acronym D.W.B. (Driving While Black) (2). Black people get pulled over constantly it has its own descriptor as D.W.B. This is ridiculous how it has its own word form. Skin color has become evidence ability to commit crime. Police use this evidence against minority drivers on the lane all the measure.Police should not be allowed to only keep a good eye out on Hispanics and Blacks. Ayres asserted, Stopped Blacks are 76% more(prenominal) likely to be searched, and stopped Latinos are 32% more likely to be searched than stopped whites (1). African Americans and Latinos are more likely to be searched than white people. Officers are only looking for these two ethnic groups because to them they are officially the bad guys. In their eyes they are the criminals and are asking for trouble. As a result, people with power have proven that they want racial profiling to continue happening.Racial profiling should be unsupportable because these two ethnic groups get frisked and arrested when they are above suspicion, they are getting judged by their skin color, and police shouldnt only watch them more carefully than any other race. Its not right for a Black or Hispanic person to get blamed in a serious situation of something they might not been involved with in the first place. Everyone should be treated the same, no one has the right to think lower of a person because they have darker skin.Race and stance are the foremost characteristic authorities look at when they are engaging this type of profiling. Police officers need to do their job appropriately and spotter for the people that are actually committing a crime or disobeying a law. Racial profiling has been going on for such a long time and it will always be wrong. People with power could deny the reality of racial profiling but they know that they are being racist and keep on doing it. They could be missing out on genuinely catching a criminal from another race because sadly they have their attention on a Hispanic or Black people.

A Picture is Worth a thousand…Parts?

It is presumed that adults can not recognize a face in parts as slowly as the complete facial structure. It is presumed to be as much(prenominal) because adults recognize the features of an individuals face more easily than the context of the facial patterns in isolation (762).This gestalt-like facial processing theoretically begins in infancy and has a developmental milestone that is disrupted if something delays or obliterates this phenomenon. On television shows and in magazines I recall partial viewings of celebrities faces and I almost never got it right. Such is the finding of Young et al in 1987 study in which adults found it difficult to recognize the top half of a celebrities face when it was aligned with bottom half of a distinguishable face (762). Some theorists study there is an intimate ability to recognize faces. However, this research study invalidates that theory. A controlled look into was done with patients that were born with or suffered from optic impairment s at infancy.These participants were all little than seven months when visual acuity was affected. Vision was later corrected and the experiment for holistic facial identification had commenced (765).To test for the gestalt-like effect, participants were asked to move a joystick forward if the top halves were the same and back if the top halves were different. Composites were created by splitting face images horizontally across the middle of the nose, and then recombining the faces using the top and bottom halves of different individuals. In the aligned position, the top and bottom were properly aligned.In the misaligned condition the top half was shifted horizontally to the left (764). The results were astounding. The group that had visual imperfections at infancy in truth performed better than their control counterparts on same trials when faces were aligned (766).This group was also more accurate on different trials than on same trials and did not start with alignment (766). T his supports the theory that this ability is not innate. Holistic face processing or a composite face effect was not a prolong ability of those with visual impairments at a critical time period. Such patients fail to integrate facial features into a Gestalt (767).This experiment shows that early visual introduce is very critical for the normal development of facial processing. It also raises the question of whether early vision is necessary to preserve the neural substrate that would allow homework to induce the later development of holistic processing of non-face objects (767), I find it rather interesting and this bizarre phenomenon begs the question of when the critical time period begins and ends.The hold states that by age six, adult-like processing takes place. It does not state if visual perception is disrupted after age six, if this ability for gestalt-like processing is still apparent. Thus this experiment does not prove that infancy is the critical time period or develo pmental milestone for this ability.To be sufficient, it would have to include a group of participants that had visual impairments later in life and the length of the impairment would have to be similar. What about visual impairments for one and two year olds? This only mentions infancy from 3 to 6 months.This experiment is partial, at best. I would also like to know how the control group compares to those who have visual impairments that have not been corrected. Are such people able to recognize faces aligned and misaligned with similar circumstances? These are critical points to validate and substantiate the findings of this experiment.

Performance Management System Essay

A carrying into action management system is the a further in which an shaping will involves its employees, as individuals and members of a group, in improving organizational effectiveness in the accomplishment of the organizations mission and goals. Employee accomplishment management includes supply work and setting expectations, continually monitoring exercise, developing the capacity to perform, periodically paygrade performance in a summary fashion, and honor good performance.PlanningWork and other processes ar planned out in organizations one of the lift out ways the organization knows to ensure that the employees atomic number 18 effective in the organization is by implementing the employees in the planning process. This helps the employees understand the goals, what needs done, why it needs to be done, and how well it should be done within the organization.monitorWithin effective organizations, projects and other assignments are monitored, positive monitoring is consi stently measuring performance as well as providing positive and negative feedback to and from employees on their progress toward reaching goals. Requirements for monitoring employees performance is compared against their elements and standards in the organization, monitoring provides the organization opportunity to check the employees performance and the ability to measure the unacceptable performance. underdevelopedEmployee development should be evaluated and addressed this form of developing can increase the capacity to perform by means of training, give tasks that work on new skills of higher levels of responsibility, improve the work process, and many other methods. When employees are provided with training and developmental opportunitys, organizations encourage good performance, strengthen job-related skills and competence, and helps employees keep up with changes in the organization such as new policy, standards, or technology.RatingOrganizations will summarize employees perf ormance allowing them to compareperformance over time or amongst a variety of employees, this allows the organization to see who the best performers are as well as the employees that need work. Rating is evaluating employees or a group of employees performance against the standards in a performance plan and assigning a summary rating record. There are rating of records assigned according to procedures included in the organizations appraisal program, which is biased on the performance by employees during an blameless appraisal period.RewardingRewarding is when the organization recognizes the employees, either as individuals or a team for their performance and acknowledging their contributions to the needs of the organization. Positive performance can be recognized without waiting for nominations for awards, recognition can be implemented in all day-to-day operations within the organization.Using a Performance instruction SystemAny organization that uses a performance management sys tem creates positive work practices among the employees, as well it allows the management in the organization to see where the employees performance is at. Organizations need to gather information more or less employee performance in order to figure out who would be a good fit when it comes to promotions and who would be better equipped to handle more responsibilities. Performance management system helps the organization to determine which employees are best suited to hire from within, not only do they already know the operations of the organization, but the organizations management knows their work ethics and has already been monitoring their progress.

Mughal emperor of India Essay

Jahangir (Mughal emperor moth of India) (1569-1627), was the fourth Mughal Emperor of India who control for 22 long time. Jahangir was a friendly and a moderate Muslim. Jahangir loved architecture, fine arts and was really sore of paintings. Besides beingness a successful ruler, he was kind to his Indian subjects whether they be Hindis or Muslims. Jahangir was a ruler with m both(prenominal) military ambitions, the foremost being to conquer the stern of the government of Timurids, the Transoxiana.Jahangir was the tidings of one of the most nonable rulers in the Islamic history, Akbar and his wife Jodha Bai. He was brought in the best possible manner and minded(p) the best education at the new capital of India Fatehpur-Sikri. He was taught Persian, Arabic, Hindi, History, Arithmetic, Geography and Turki by different expert teachers. The teacher who influenced Jahangir the most was Abdul Rahim Khan, a genius in every(prenominal) aspects of life. Under his influence, Jahangi r mastered the art of composing verses. Anxious For the ThroneJahangir was given training in the well-mannered and military department. He was set in charge of the Kabul expedition in the year 1581, where he conducted military expeditions. Four years later he was given the rank of an Army officer with see over 12000 soldiers. At an early life he was familiar with wine and became addicted to the life. Besides being a master in different parts of life, he was very much impatient. His ambition to begin the new ruler without the traditional death of his find was the reason he became annoyed with his father.When Akbar was convinced by one his favorite companions Abul fazl to make a committee of seekers who think of him as a divinely excite person and gave him the phrase of Allah Akbar, thinking that Abul Fazl was going to be the next successor because of his close relationship with his father, Abul Fazl was bump off by the prince in the year 1602. This really depressed Akbar and h e did not show his face in public for 3 days. Finally in the year 1605 a dying King Akbar unwillingly placed his turban on his Eldest son and hence Prince Salim was hailed as the new King.He was given the only ift at the age of 36 and assumed the name of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir. But Jahangir soon too was disturbed by his eldest son Prince Khusrau. Soon after Prince Khusraus army was defeated at the hands of the lofty forces near Jallandar, the prince was faced with total humiliation. Jahangir had his own son walk in a street with the pierce bodies of his supporters. This demoralized his son so much that he could organize a revolt and was given any moral support from the people who didnt wanted him to be the next ruler. posterior Jahangir had his eyes on the Sikh ruler Guru Arjun, who had given money to Prince Khusrau. The Sikh leader was fined for this offence and tortured till he breathed his last breath. Studies show that Sikhs suffered only when they were involved in pol itical result otherwise Jahangir did not mistreated with them. Jahangir was so determined to give justice, that he ordered a strand of justice made purely from gold to be hung outside the Agra fort and who ever thinks he is not given justice can ring it to draw the attention of the ruler and he may be given a fair chance to rectify his injustice.Disturbances in India later on provoked the Shah of Persia to barter for the Fortress of Kandahar which had a very strategic and commercial importance as it was the reason of argument among India and Persia in the Middle Ages. After the death of Humayun, it was handed to Shah Hussain by a Persian ruler, which was later captured by Akbar but than again passed to the Persians. There were unsuccessful attempts made to capture the fort, but each and every time the Mughals failed. These failed attempts reduced the status of the Mughal Empire.Jahangir increases Territories and Builds Statues and Mosques Jahangir main aim now was to conquest the whole of India. He direct his spot son to conquer the great fort of Chittor which was under the hands of a Hindu ruler by the name of Rana Amar Singh. The first attempt was unsuccessful in 1605, in 1608 another army was sent to conquer the fort but instead in 1615 a peace treaty was signed among the Hindu ruler and Jahangirs second son. No one in history had managed to end a ache conflict into a peace treaty and this treaty is a landmark.Jahangir ordered for two life size marbles to be placed in the Palace of Agra, one of his son and other of the Hindu Ruler. Jahangir got the obedience of the Mewars which lasted till his grandson Emperor Aurangzeb who divided the two kingdoms. One of the most notable achievements in the Jahangir regimen was the successful capture of Kanga. Jahangirs desire to seize Ahmadnagar and the two independent states of Bijapur and Golkunda were assigned to his third son Prince Khurram. The seizing of Kanga prompted the Emperor to go to the place and bu ilt mosques there.However Ahmadnagar was not conquered due to the opposition plan of attack from a former slave who trained soldiers of Maharasthra in guerilla combat. Prince Khurram was rewarded for his partial success by been given a title of Shah Jahan core King of the World. Wife and Son strive For Power The most great in the first half of Jahangirs regime was the rise of his most favorite wife Nur Jahan meaning Light of the World and his son Prince Khurram. A lady having a great amount of energy and umteen talents, Nur Jahan became an effective leader in Politics.Many Persian poets, architects, musicians and artists came to Agra just because of her. Shah Jahan was the next in line for his breed throne which made Nur jahan disliking him. The first step Nur Jahan took was to persuade Jahangir to make Shah Jahan return to the military which will automatically make him go away from the political personal business. Shah Jahan accepted and along with his Brother Khusrau went a gainst rival kings in Deccan. Later hearing that Jahangirs health was worsening, he planned on despatching his brother who would become a rival in his way to the throne.In the year 1623 Shah Jahan had an open march towards Agra which prompted Nur Jahan to order find the forces of Shah Jahan and kill him. Being at a military disadvantage Shah Jahan avoided the forces and was chased around India for continuously three years and than agreeing to return to his father. Jahangir was very fond of religious dialogues. Sir Thomas of England held a dialogue with the emperor to allow Christians, Muslims and Hindus to be treated as equal and should celebrate their religious festivals.He allowed all the religions to hold their festivals without any problems. Problems among his wife and son Shah Jahan were disastrous for the Mughal Empire. Jahangirs situation was serious after facing pressure from the Persian Empire and continued problems between his wife and son. Reign an Era of Family Strife And Notable Architecture Jahangir was noteworthy for his architectural works. His magnificent tomb at Agra was finished in the year 1628 by his chief rectors daughter, Nur Jahan. It was brilliant art with different styles of inlay.It features included the use of white marble and inlay as a decorative item. The quality of paintings and coins during the regime of Jahangir was the result of the Emperors own interest. He was a student keen in paintings and knew had the ability to tell as to who painted the eye and the eyebrow in the face and who painted the rest of the picture. Towards the end of his era, his wife Nur Jahan took an active role in the government affairs and she appointed her skillful brother Asaf Khan to be a chief in the kingdom.Later both Brother and sister decided to attack the powerful afghan by birth name Mahabat Khan. When Mahabat caravan inn realized the delicate situation, with the help of 5000 troops, he marched towards the bank of river Jhelum. As Jahangir and Nur Jahan were traveling to Kabul, the emperor was taken prisoner the Afghan. Jahangir managed to escape with the help of her clever wife, Nur Jahan. Later Shah Jahan joined forces with Mahabat Khan to become more powerful than ever. The emperor turned towards Kashmir, where he found comfort and made regular journeys there.There he found instinctive paradise, which he along with his court had tried to make an artificial one. The Mughal tends in Srinagar are one of the results of his interest. Shalimar garden in Lahore, Pakistan was also a beautiful place with carved pillars, pools which can be reached only by stepping stones. Jahangir died in October of 1927 at the bottom of the Kashmir Hills Nur Jahan was betrayed by her brother Asaf Khan who joined Shah Jahan. When Shah Jahan came to know about his fathers death his rushed to Agra to claim his fathers throne.Nur Jahan was sentenced to live her life in solitude in Lahore where she died in 1645. Some historians think Jahangir was a changeable dictator where as the Indian authors regard him as a noble and kind ruler. Most people agree that he was an educated and a cultural man. The most notable building renovated by him is his fathers tomb in Sikandra. A great mosque is also built in Lahore under his guidance, which rivals a mosque built by his son in New Delhi. Conclusion Jahangir was a successful ruler and during his era people were very well off.Many industries flourished during his time mainly Agriculture. His main idea was to promote social justice and an administrative efficiency, and in most cases he tried to follow his fathers footstep but was slight successful in putting them into effect. Jahangir was one of the most successful Emperors of the Mughal Empire.Bibliography Wheeler M Thackston, 1999 the Jahangirnama Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India, Oxford University Press, Oxford University Press, USA.

Ineffectiveness of Therapeutic Communities in Prisons Essay

Prisons release 650,000 offenders to the public annu in ally and 70% of those exoffenders will commit new offenses inwardly three years (Fields, 2005, p. A4). According to the JFA Institute (2007), two-thirds of the 650,000 prison house admissions atomic number 18 people who take over failed probation or liberateapproximately half of these people have been sent to prison for technical violations (p. 1). As prison herd occurs, prison officials are challenged to keep bunco games in use(p) by assigning them to racy tasks and incorporate therapeutic programs (Center for arbiter & Reconciliation, 2007).If criminal nicety professionals fail to keep up with programming expectations, program shortages whitethorn influence bunko game idleness resulting in disruptions, prison violations, and rational-health issues related to stress and mental picture (Fields). During 2003 and 2004, approximately 900 criminals entered the nations jails and prisons severally week based on a report issued in April 2006 by the U. S. plane section of judge, Office of Justice Programs (p. 1). Jails and prisons in the U. S.house more people with mental illnesses than many of the inpatient psychiatric facilities, and virtually all correctional facilities experience the impact of this population that is increasing at an unprecedented rate (McCuan, Prini, & Wasarhaley, 2007). During 2006, 41% of gyp assailants were listed under the mental health caseload (Collins, 2006). In 2006, the U. S. Department of Justice released statistics revealing that 23% of state prisoners account symptoms of major depression. An estimated 61% of state prisoners and 44% of jail cons who had a mentalhealth problem similarly had a history of past violent behavior. In a 1999 report (Dawn, 2007), the National Alliance for the mentally Ill reported that there are three times as many seriously mentally ill individuals in prison and jails than there are being treated in hospitals. Equally sorry is that th e criminal justice system will have some type of experience with 25 to 40% of the mentally ill in the U. S. population. Inmates with mental illness present additional expenditure problems for prison systems already overburdened by population demands.The influx has challenged criminal justice professionals to extend their budgets to cover the costs of earmark programming for every offender in an effort to minimize potential inmate unrest, a plaza that leads to assaults and other infractions associated with idleness (Wilkinson, 1998). In 2007, the Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction (DRC) reached a population milestone with a count of 50,000 offenders. As the inmate population rises in Ohio prisons, the possibility of inmate assaults may similarly go up because overcrowding exacerbates the chronic pains of imprisonment (Haney, 2006, p. 2). One way to crystallize outa potential gain in assaults is to keep offenders pursue in some type of union action and partici pating in therapeutic programs. Some officials reported that therapeutic programs and partnership returns theoretically should be one of the virtually effective ways to engage an inmates time and energy and keep infractions at a manageable level. DRC views the involvement of inmates in community service and therapy as vital to their release. Ohio prison Director terrycloth Collins stated that ex-offenders who served as program participants during their incarceration help close the gap between themselves and their communities.As a result, these inmates are better prepared to function as lawabiding citizens because they have stayed in touch with the community and have given something of value back (Collins, 2007, p. 1). Very crowded prison systems are difficult to manage (Wilkinson, 1998, p. 76). As prison crowding occurs, prison officials are challenged to keep inmates busy by assigning them to productive tasks. Good prison management is savory prisoners in meaningful activities such as educational programs and march assignments (Wilkinson, p. 76).The most important single factor (among many) that helps to explain the current crisis in American correctionsthe pretermit of effective programming and treatment (Haney, 2007, p. 76). Although prison jobs such as mopping floors, kitchen duty, and making prison garments reside inmates time, more meaningful community service as a restorative justice measure may be an effective way to address the challenge of prison crowding (Center for Justice & Reconciliation, 2007). The meaningful expectation is critical because it may help to instill responsibility and a changed attitude about criminalactivity (Wilkinson, p. 76). Prisons in the United States are facing the challenges of crowding including inmate idleness as it relates to programming expectations. inadequacy of programming in prison is a serious safe and security threat to the staff, the public, and the offenders. As inmate populations increase, once stab le prison systems can become volatile environments and endanger prison staff and the systems they are charged with protecting (Gaes, 1994). When criminal justice professionals fail to keep up with programming expectations, program shortages may influence inmate idleness.Inmate idleness can lead to disruptions, prison violations, gang-related activities, and mental-health issues related to stress and depression (Wilkinson, p. 76). Another issue confronting the criminal justice system is the increasing number ofyouth being sentenced to adult prisons (Fields, 2005). all state within the U. S. has at least one statutory component that addresses the procedure of processing juveniles as adults in criminal court (Wilkinson, 1998). Prison officials also have other challenges. One challenge officials look includes accommodating the needs of state prisoners with symptoms of mania (43%) and majordepression (23%) according to the U. S. Department of Justice (2006, p. 1). A major problem is th at inmates with mental health problems are unable to defend their situation so they proceed in prison. Although prison officials face the issue of crowding, they are also seeking ways for inmates to become engaged in some type of activity that will keep them busy for the majority of their waking hours. When offenders engage in some type of prison program or activity that helps with their transition from prison to confederation successful reintegration is possible.The theoretical framework of community service in the prison setting is the restorative justice dumbfound (Zehr, 2002). The restorative justice model advocates that offenders must demonstrate a desire or a goodwill gesture to pay back the public for the misdeed they committed in order to reconnect to their community. reviving justice is a philosophical framework for responding to crime that focuses on the injury resulting from crime and the actions needed to bring around this harm. It focuses on crime as an act against another individual or the community rather than the state.It is a future-focused model that emphasizes problem solving instead of just deserts. (Carey, 1996, pp. 152-153) Although several justice models exist, the restorative justice model combines the best features of the traditional, liberal, and conservative theories. Restorative justice has brought an awareness of the limits and negative by-products of punishment. Beyond that, however, it has argued that punishment is not accepted accountability (Zehr, 2002, p. 16). By participating as community service volunteers, inmates choose to serve the community. The inmates actions demonstrate a desire togive back and a desire to assume responsibility for their actions. Community service programs have a restorative justice component that considers an offenders successful transition from incarceration to community integration (U. S. Department of Justice, 2006). When considering the large number of offenders in jails and prisons nation ally, the problem demands the publics immediate worry (U. S. Department of Justice, 2006). Providing offenders with productive activities through programs like community service sends a message to the public that its safety andsecurity is vital. It is also important to assist inmates in their transition back into the community by engaging them in an activity that keeps them connected to a society that has been offended by crime. Wilkinson (1998) reported that a substantive percent of exoffenders that participated in community service while in prison did not recidivate compared to those offenders that did not participate (p. 91). Although community service may have a positive impact on an inmates community re-entry, the type of community service program inmates do during theirincarceration may also improve their quality of prison life. Barak, Savorai, Mavashev, and Beni (2001) reported that dogs are becoming a valued therapeutic joyride among health-care providers in clinical and non-traditional settings because of the calming affect dogs have on the physical and mental conditions of patients. Community service programs serve a useful role in managing inmate behavior and controlling the frequency and insensibility of inmate infractions within adult prisons. However, as prison crowding occurs, prison officials struggle to keep inmates busy by assigning them to productive tasks.Inmate idleness is something that most states are confronted with and while prison jobs such as mopping floors, kitchen duty, and making prison garments keep inmates occupied, these jobs are not enough to satisfy programming requirements to address the needs of rising populations. As inmate populations increase, stable prison systems could become volatile environments endangering prison staff as well as the inmates the systems are charged with protecting. When there are a control number of prison jobs to address the population challenges, offenders find inappropriate ways to address t heir own idleness.The choices offenders make may lead to fights, staff assaults, riots, and other forms of aggression. References Barak, Y. , Savorai, O. , Mavashev, S. , & Beni, A (2001). Animal assisted therapy for elderly schizophrenic patients A one year controlled trial. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9(4), 439-432. Fields, G. (2005, January). Congress prepares to tackle prisoner recidivism Lawmakers plan for nonpartisan measures after report offers advice for overhaul. Wall Street Journal, p. A4. JFA Institute. (2007, November). Unlocking America Why and how to reduce Americasprison population. Retrieved November 10, 2007, from www. jfa-associates. com U. S. Department of Justice. (2006, September 6). Study finds more than half of all prison and jail inmates have mental health problems. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http//www. ojp. usdoj. gov/newsroom/pressreleases/2006/BJS06064. htm McCuan, R. , Prins, S. , & Wasarhaley, N. (2007). Resources and challenges Correctio ns and mental health collaborations. August 2007, Corrections Today Female Offenders Collins, T. (2006). Ohio Department of Rehabilitation & Correction Pieces of thepuzzle. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http//www. drc. ohio. gov/ Dawn, B. (2007). Managing the other inmate. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http//www. corrections. com Wilkinson, R. A. (1998). The impact of community service work on adult state prisons using a restorative justice framework. Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati, College of Education. Haney, C. (2007). proof of Professor Craig Haney. Prison overcrowding Harmful consequences and dysfunctional reactions. University of California, Santa Cruz.

Ethics in Research The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Essay

The field of medicine has experienced rapid growth with in the fewer 150 to 200 years, and over the years we have learn that many of these scientific developments were made at the expense of unorthodox procedures and research carried out with little to no concern on the wrong aspects of the research, as medical science advance the researchers place little or no effort towards informing subjects almost the temper of experiments. Tuskegee syph experiments in Alabama was on especially an infamous experiment, from 1932 to 1972 the U.S.Public health run (PHS) conducted an experiment on 400 African American males in the late stages of lues venerea these men, for the most component part illiterate sharecroppers from one of the poorest counties in Alabama, were told what disease they were suffering from or of its seriousness, informed that they were being treated for inquisitive Blood their Doctors had no intention of curing them for syphilis at all.The data for the experiment was t o be collect for autopsies of the men, and they were thus designedly left to degenerate under the ravages of tertiary syphilis which can include tumors, subject matter disease, paralysis, blindness, insanity and death, this is the most unethical, immoral and genocidal act carried out and funded my U.S. Public health Services.Coercion or leverage was the main tactic the PHS researchers use to recruit their test subjects, whom was poor uneducated sharecroppers that luck the resources needed to try out side help, by misinforming the participants about the truth of their illness (syphilis), but non the less this was a agency for the PHS to carry out their hidden agenda, to make them aware that they do have an illness and The U.S. Public Health Services was there to help treat them of their so call bad blood pandemic, this act of obsession provided the PHS the leverage they need to recruit necessary research subjects.Because of this the consent acquired by the researchers from the research subjects was invalid because the info provided by the researchers was subjects was invalid, this violation of inform consent stemmed further, the researchers did not explain the expectancy and severity of the research, the researchers deliberately did not inform the subjectsthat they have the right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once it has begun.The spider web of lies and deception planed and carried out by The U.S. Public Health Services researchers had no plans of curing the syphilis pandemic, the deception in this research is the main underlying reason why this research study is unethical in nature, rather than the actual deception itself, the deliberate use of deception in this research resulted in the deaths of a 100 African Americans research subjects, these deaths was actually apart of the research it self.The study actively unploughed the men away from treatment, even after penicillin became widely used for the treatment of syphilis in 1950s. In February of 1969, the PHS decided to continue thestudy and to continue to deny the men antibiotic treatment even though penicillin had become established as the standard treatment for syphilis, because it assumed that the disease was far too mod for it to be treated.Associated Press reporter Jean Heller broke the story on July 25, 1972 on the front-page of the unused York Times and the study stopped at once After the research had ended the only lxxiv participants of 400 infected subjects had still been a live after the study got exposited, In August 1972, an ad hoc committee found the study to have been ethically unjustified and argued that penicillin should have been given to the men upon its discovery. 40 years after the experiment had ended the test subjects was not Adequate debriefed on the true nature of the study and the long-term effects of the of the syphilis on their bodies, wife and kids.After the press release of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment the test s ubjects was provided with little to no confidentiality from the press or PHS after the findings of the research was publish. The experiment mixture was limited to African Americans males, who were the carry of the syphilis.ReferencesWilliam J. Clinton, Remarks, in Tuskegees Truths Rethinking the Tuskegee syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 574-577.Thomas G. Benedek and Jonathan Erlen, The scientific Environment of the Tuskegee Study of Syphilis, 1920-1960, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 no. 1 (1999), 1-30.Ad Hoc Tuskegee Syphilis Panel, Selections from the Final Report, in Tuskegees Truths Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 166.Jean Heller, Syphilis Victims in the U.S. Went untreated for 40 years, in Tuskegees Truths Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 116- 117.anessa N. Gamble and Deborah Stone. U.S. Policy on Health Inequities the Interplay of Politics and Research, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 31, (2006) 93-126.Ruth R. Faden, Susan E. Lederer , J. E. Lederer, and Juan D. Moreno, U.S. medical checkup Researchers, the Nuremberg Doctors Trial, and the Nuremberg Code, Journal of the American Medical Association, 276 no. 20(1996) 1668.Martin S. Pernick, The patients role in medical decision making a companionable history of informed consent in medical therapy, in Making Health Care Decisions A Report on the Ethical and Legal Implications of Informed Consent in the Patient-Practitioner Relationship, Presidents thrill for Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 3 1-25.

Evolution of the Immune System

John Frelinger Dr. Travis Organic Evolution 30 April 2012 Evolution of the Immune trunk Animals ar constantly bombarded by an immensely varied array of disease causing pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and opposite parasites. The bit of microbes living in the human physical structure out teleph matchless number the actual human cells by a chemical subdivision of 10, and for every(prenominal) single species of animal and plant on Earth, there be viruses that infect them. With the unrelenting holy terror of disease-causing pathogens all around us, and horizontal within us, how suffer the constantly vulnerable organisms defend themselves?Evolution has provided an wait on to this problemthe repellent dust. The tolerant ashes is a vastly obscure orchestra of cells working together to garter eliminate probablely harmful pathogens from the body. Some form of host defense is found in every multicellular organism, however there are myriad variations in the to lerant strategys of different organisms. Vertebrates brook learnd an acquired resistant firmness of purpose, in which a detail tolerant system is activated to clear an infection that is initially controlled by a non-specific ( innate(p)) resistive response.This highly adaptable system is important to the survival of craniate species. Surprisingly, however, 90% of animals (invertebrates) do non have this kind of response. Despite lacking a seemingly critical adaptation, invertebrates continue to move and reproduce. Why does it appear necessary for vertebrates to have an acquired response in order to live, but the more than numerous invertebrate species do not? Research indicates that there is an evolutionary seam of the resistant system that stems from the take apart of invertebrates and vertebrates.Innate immunity, which is found in all animals, is assumed to be at the beginning of this evolutionary tree. After the diversification of species (vertebrates branching fr om invertebrates), mechanisms of immunity as well as diverged. In this paper I depart first discuss the do work of the innate insubordinate system because of its older evolutionary history, followed by the accommodative immune response that evolved after in vertebrate lineages. I get out then(prenominal) conclude by placing the development of the innate and adaptative immune system in an evolutionary context.Innate immunity is the first line of defense for an organism and is make up of elements that protect the organism from pathogens. Anatomical aspects much(prenominal) as skin act as an tight barrier to infectious pathogens. Chemical and biological factors, including anti-microbial peptides like defensins, are also used to inhibit bacterial growth and prevent colonization. Another immunological factor of the innate immune system are phagocytic cells (macrophages), which are cells that engulf and eliminate foreign pathogens.These cells operate using a variety of differen t and generalized receptors that recognize a broad range of molecular patterns imparted by pathogens that initiate phagocytosis. One such family of receptors, known as Toll-like Receptors, recognizes common pathogen elements such as bacterial wall components or viral desoxyribonucleic acid sequences. This component is found in virtually every multicellular organism, ranging from sponges to humans (Muller and Muller 2003). Plants also express proteins that are very exchangeable to toll-like receptors, indicating that this aspect of the innate immune system predates the divergence of plants and animals.The innate immune system is so valuable to an organisms survival because it is alship mintal present and in m whatever a(prenominal) instances muckle prevent pathogen entry or replication. This, in turn, prevents a harmful infection from ever occurring internal the host. Although invertebrates do not have the acquired immune response, recent research has shown that their innate r esponse is more complex than previously purpose. Insects can activate their immune systems to remain in a higher state in order to prepare for a pathogen invasion.During bedbug mating, females are frequently injured in the branch because males pass on stab a female to inject his sperm, infecting her with bacteria and exposing her to other potential infections. In response, females have evolved ways to enhance their immune system prior to mating in anticipation of pathogen invasion (Morrow and Arnqvist 2003). Bumblebees are sufficient of maintaining a heightened immune system in response to a prior pathogen invasion to aid in the prevention of future infections. Immunity such as this has been shown to pass down vertically to offspring, therefore increase their seaworthiness (Tyler et al. 006). Slugs have also evolved an interesting alternative response in the form of increased vicissitude rates of certain immune cell receptors, which allows their immune system to adapt to many f oreign elements (Litman and barrel maker 2007). While it is inherently different from the acquired immune response, this sensitive management of immune function was previously thought to be reserved as a characteristic of vertebrates and the adaptive immune response. As vertebrates began to diverge and evolve from invertebrates, so too did the immune system.The new adaptive branch of the immune system originally conferred a new selective advantage for vertebrates because of its specificity and immense flexibility in recognizing new pathogens. The clonal selection theory, in which each lymphocyte clonally expresses a specific antigen receptor, can help condone how the immune system can express an extremely wide range of potential receptors capable of recognizing new pathogens. Lymphocytes are undifferentiated cells that in the long run become B-cells (Bone Marrow) or T-cells (Thymus) depending on where they migrate.B-cells possess a uniquely structured immunoglobulin molecule (anti bodies open on outer surface) that recognizes and binds to a specific molecular counterpart. When a foreign antigen is bound to the antibody, it stimulates the replication of that specific B-cell with the aid of Helper T-cells, which enhance B-cell maturation. This process results in the clonal expansion of cells that recognize the original antigen and ulterior production of antibodies that help in the eradication of the pathogen. An important point of this process is that the pathogens select which lymphocytes expand.It also results in retrospect B-cells and T-cells that constitute a persistent immune memory for a particular antigen. This expanded pocket billiards of memory cells is activated upon a second movie to the same pathogen, resulting in a much more rapid immune response to clear infection. Other types of T-cells are also produced during this process. For example, cytotoxic T-cells fall guy and execute virally infected cells, while suppressor or regulatory T-cells a re activated when the infectious pathogens are eliminated and channelize the immune system to subside.Cells such as these also experience selective pressuresones that react to self-tissue (and harm the host) would be selected against, while those that recognize pathogens would survive and replicate. The clonal selection theory addresses many aspects of vertebrate immunity, however, it does not explain all of the mysteries behind the variety of antibody generation. The sheer number of antibodies that can be produced and the finding that the acquired immune response can generate antibodies to manmade molecules that are not present in nature led scientists to explore how such diversity is generated.Research done by Susumu Tonegawa in the 1970s indicated that B-cells have the ability to produce a massive number of antibodies due to a gene rearrangement process. B cells originally have many sets of gene segments (Variable, Diverse, and Joining) and over the course of its maturation re duce these segments to one of each type for the production of the antibody heavy chain. A similar process of gene rearrangement is involved for the production of the antibody light chain. The light chain and heavy chain proteins then assemble to form the complete antibody molecule that can specifically bind to an antigen.Two genes that are critical for this process to work are RAG1 and RAG2. These genes are known as recombination-activating genes and distinguish the vertebrate immune system from other lineages. These genes are critical to the process because they act as the excision and joining molecules that cut and knit keystone together the soul VDJ segments that make up the antibody. This results in the huge potential of diverse antibodies that can be producedhundreds of millions of possible antibody types generated from a much tinyer number of gene segments that can react with virtually any antigen.This sophisticated process whitethorn have originally been introduced by a mo bile genetic element known as transposons. These transposable elements have the ability to excise themselves from one DNA sequence and incorporate themselves into another, very similar to the RAG1 and RAG2 gene functions. After the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates, a viral infection of the jawed lineages gametes may have introduced a transposon into their genome. (Thompson 1995). This may have provided the raw materials necessary to comfort the development of adaptive immunity.The acquired response appears to have evolved from a single lineage because all vertebrates (excluding jawless fish) adjudge this RAG-mediated gene rearrangement system. The specificity of this kind of response may have been selected for because of its ability to recognize a diverse number of pathogens, but also because it could conserve more energy resources compared to the generalized defense of the innate response. The adaptive immune response is structured in such a way that it can respond to an almost boundless number of pathogens, while utilizing a relatively limited number of genes.Figure 1 illustrates a potential evolution based on some immune system adaptations previously discussed. Figure 1 (Reproduced from Litman and Cooper 2007). Although the vertebrate immune system is extremely adaptable to many potential threats, it is far from perfect. Epidemics such as the bubonic Plague or the 1918 influenza killed millions of people. Similarly, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they also introduced pathogens that were devastating to the indigenous people.One of the major(ip) limitations of the acquired immune response is that it takes a relatively long time to respond after the initial exposure in order to be effective. This time is required because the lymphocytes must clonally expand before a pathogen can be eliminated. For example, in the case of the Native Americans, when they were exposed to the new pathogens, the infections spread to a portion of the natio n that was large enough to leave them unable to forage for food or to tend to the sick. As a result, it nearly wiped out the entire civilization.This limitation is significant as illustrated by these and many other historical epidemics. These difficulties have led scientists to think more fully about the effectiveness of the vertebrate immune system. If the immune system has the potential to combat virtually any conceivable threat, why then cant it eer eliminate any potentially harmful pathogen? We also look to immune hypersensitivity and autoimmunity as potential drawbacks of the immune system, indicating further imperfections of the adaptation. When the immune system mistakenly targets self-tissue, it results in serious consequences for the organism.Concepts in evolutionary biological science might help address these issues. In this context the immune system does not have to be inherently perfect by design because only some individuals of a tribe need to survive and reproduce for that lineage to continue. The variation introduced by the immune system generates the diversity necessary for a population to adapt to changing environmental pressures. As others have suggested, a zebra doesnt have to outrun the lion, comely the slowest member of the herd (Hedrick 2004).The immune system is subjected to the same constraints as other characteristics in regards to subjective selection. In this case even if a trait is not optimal, but helps the organism survive and reproduce, it will be selected for, regardless of any deleterious effects experienced post-reproduction. Many, but not all immunologists, imagine the development of the adaptive immune system with gene rearrangement was a critical advance. It has been proposed that the development of the adaptive immune system was the Big Bang for the evolution of immune system (Travis 2009).This development might have also enabled the rapid expansion of vertebrates. Moreover, the idea that the adaptive immune system can generate receptors for molecules that are not yet present, makes it extremely flexible and has been called forward thinking (Travis 2009). Thus, while the immune system does not stop every change in organisms it is ready for them by constructing a large repertoire of antigen specific receptors, which confers a big selective advantage. Others have suggested the adaptive immune system conserves resources, and thus is better than the innate system.In contrast, as noted earlier, invertebrates lack a fully functional adaptive immune system and are very successful. Moreover, others have argued that even if the immune system was an advantage, it was only temporary and short lived (Hedrick 2004). Another applicable issue deals with the concept of parasite and host co-evolution. This constant struggle is exemplified by a quote from Lewis Carrolls Through the Looking Glass, it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same smudge. This concept, originally introduced by Leigh Van Valen, has been termed the Red Queen hypothesis.According to this hypothesis, an purifyment in fitness for one species will lead to a selective advantage for that species. However, since species are often coevolving with one another, improvement in one species implies that it gains a competitive advantage over the other species, and thus has the potential to outcompete for shared resources. This means that fitness increase in one evolutionary system will tend to lead to fitness diminish in another system. The only way that a competing species can maintain its relative fitness is to improve on its own design.Although this theory was used to help explain the extinction of species and the evolution of sexual reproduction, it has been utilise to many aspects of predator prey relationships including the development of the immune system. Because animals are constantly attacked by fast-adapting parasites, the host immune system cannot possibly gain an advantage over them. The evolution of the immune system is caused by the small advantages conferred as a result of variation in the erudition of pathogens.As suggested by Steven Hedrick, by selecting for more gnarled parasites, the immune system is ultimately the cause of its own necessity (Hedrick 2004). Thus paradoxically, the immune system, since it places a self-coloured selective pressure on pathogens and parasites, ultimately has become essential for vertebrates to survive. By placing selective pressure on parasites that can evolve much more rapidly than animals (due to their higher reproductive/mutation rate), it results in parasites that are increasingly more effective at infecting hosts of that species.In terms of the immune system, one strategy that parasites have authentic is a means of altering their own antigens to become unrecognizable. In this way they escape the adaptive immune system by altering their structure. For example, trypanosomes can switch the major target antigen for antibodies, which they use as a strategy to extend the amount of time they reside in the host. This results in a more patrimonial host that will increase the spread of pathogens to new hosts (Stockdale et al. 2008).Similarly, because the HIV polymerase is very error prone with no proof reading mechanism, many mutations arise in the HIV proteins during its infection. While the adaptive immune system can make neutralizing antibodies, new variants arise that can no longer be recognized by the antibodies. These new variants have a selective advantage and escape, and thus the adaptive immune systemis always lagging behind. In terms of the host immune response, there is also an extremely high directof polymorphism of major histocompatibility genes, which enable the population to respond to a wider array of antigens using T-cells.The benefit of this heterozygosity is that it allows the individual to respond to a wider variety of antigens. Moreover this diversity helps ensure that even though some individu als may perish, the particular pathogen will not be able to eliminate the entire population. Some infectious agents have even taken it a step further and evolved ways to utilize the host immune system to increase their own fitness. For example, infections that result in pus filled cysts can be used to brand parasitic progeny and spread to new hosts when they burst.Even though this may help the host clear an infection, the pathogen can use this to increase its own fitness and infect more individuals. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) utilizes the host immune system by initially infecting macrophages, and subsequently T-cells, which the virus uses as a reservoir for reproduction and as a means to spread to many different tissues in the body (Orenstein 2001). It also serves the virus to target immune cells for infection because crippling the host immune response akes it easier for the virus to spread throughout the body and eventually to new hosts (due to the higher viral load). In this light, it is possible that invertebrates did not evolve the adaptive immune response because they may have never needed it. By lacking the ability to develop a memory for a particular pathogen, those pathogens did not evolve anti-immune mechanisms to counter the host immune response. An immune memory could lead to more devious pathogens and result in a more harmful infection in the future.This could have been a better strategy for invertebrates as it may have prevented the co-evolution of more virulent pathogens (Hedrick 2004). The immune system has a long evolutionary history in multicellular organisms. The innate immune system is a critical adaptation that helped these organisms survive the onslaught of parasites and pathogens. Vertebrates possess an adaptive immune response that allowed for the recognition of an almost infinite number of pathogenic antigens, however, it appears to have become a one-way road with the coevolution of pathogens.Once this adaptive system appea red in the vertebrate lineage, there was no going back. Because of the immense flexibility of the adaptive immune response, it places huge selective pressures on pathogens to constantly evolve new mechanisms of infecting hosts. Thus in the context of evolution, even with the incredible versatility of the adaptive immune system, it is likely there can not be an ultimate solution to infection by parasites only a new, perhaps unstable, equilibrium. Works Cited Hedrick, S. (2004). The Acquired Immune System A reward from Beneath.Immunity 21, 607-615. Litman, G. and Cooper, M. (2007). Why Study the Evolution of Immunity? Nature Immunology 8, 547-548. Morrow, E. H. , and Arnqvist, G. (2003). Costly traumatic insemination and a female counter-adaptation in bed bugs. Proceedings of the Royal SocietyB Biological Sciences. 270 23772381 Muller, W. and Muller, I. (2003). Origin of the Metazoan Immune System Identification of the Molecules and Their Functions in Sponge. integrative and Compara tive Biology 43, 281-292. Orenstein, J. (2001). The Macrophage in HIV Infection.Immunobiol. 204, 598- 602. Stockdale, C. , Swiderski, M. , Barry D. , and Richard McCulloch (2008). Antigenic Variation in Trypanosoma brucei Joining the DOTs. PLoS Biol 6. Thompson, C. B. (1995). New insights into V(D)J recombination and its constituent in the evolution of the immune system. Immunity 3, 531539. Travis, John. (2009). On the Origin of the Immune System. Sciencemag Vol. 329. Tyler, E. , Adams, S. , and Mallon, E. (2006), An Immune result in the Bumblebee,Bombus terrestris leads to increased food consumption. BMC Physiology 6.